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Punjabi Shahmukhi | Madurese | |
---|---|---|
Family | Indo-European, Indo-Aryan | Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian |
Speakers | Approximately 130 million (includes speakers of both Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi scripts) | Approximately 13.5 million |
Features | Written in a modified Perso-Arabic script; primarily used by Punjabi speakers in Pakistan and some parts of India. Unlike Gurmukhi, Shahmukhi is written from right to left. | A language with distinct phonetic features, such as a reduced vowel inventory and a preference for glottal stops; it exhibits a high degree of mutual unintelligibility with Javanese despite geographic proximity. |
Countries | Pakistan (primary script for Punjabi), India (minority use), and Punjabi-speaking diaspora communities | Indonesia (primarily on Madura Island and in parts of East Java, including Surabaya and surrounding areas) |
Writing System | Shahmukhi script (Perso-Arabic script with additional characters) | Latin script (modern use), previously Javanese and Pegon scripts (Arabic-derived script) |
Tonal | Yes, tonal distinctions are important for meaning | No |
Grammatical Cases | No, relies on word order and postpositions | No, uses prepositions and affixes to mark relationships |
Derived From | Perso-Arabic script, adapted for Punjabi phonology | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
Loanwords | From Arabic, Persian, and English | From Javanese, Sanskrit, Arabic, and Dutch |
Dialects | Includes Majhi, Doabi, Malwai, Pothohari, and others. Standard Shahmukhi is based on the Majhi dialect spoken around Lahore. | Includes Bangkalan, Sumenep, and Pamekasan dialects, with significant lexical and phonological differences |
Alphabets | ا, ب, پ, ت, ٹ, ث, ج, چ, ح, خ, د, ڈ, ذ, ر, ڑ, ز, ژ, س, ش, ص, ض, ط, ظ, ع, غ, ف, ق, ک, گ, ل, م, ن, ں, و, ہ, ء, ی, ے | A, B, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y, Z |
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