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Punjabi Shahmukhi | Santali Latin | |
---|---|---|
Family | Indo-European, Indo-Aryan | Austroasiatic, Munda |
Speakers | Approximately 130 million (includes speakers of both Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi scripts) | Approximately 7.6 million |
Features | Written in a modified Perso-Arabic script; primarily used by Punjabi speakers in Pakistan and some parts of India. Unlike Gurmukhi, Shahmukhi is written from right to left. | An Austroasiatic language with a rich oral tradition, extensive use of affixes, and three main lexical tones |
Countries | Pakistan (primary script for Punjabi), India (minority use), and Punjabi-speaking diaspora communities | India (Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam), Bangladesh, and Nepal |
Writing System | Shahmukhi script (Perso-Arabic script with additional characters) | Latin script (for some purposes), Ol Chiki script (native), Devanagari, Bengali, Oriya scripts |
Tonal | Yes, tonal distinctions are important for meaning | Yes, has three tones (high, mid, low) |
Grammatical Cases | No, relies on word order and postpositions | No strict cases, uses postpositions |
Derived From | Perso-Arabic script, adapted for Punjabi phonology | Proto-Munda |
Loanwords | From Arabic, Persian, and English | From Bengali, Hindi, and English |
Dialects | Includes Majhi, Doabi, Malwai, Pothohari, and others. Standard Shahmukhi is based on the Majhi dialect spoken around Lahore. | Includes Northern Santali, Eastern Santali, and Southern Santali, with variations in phonology and vocabulary |
Alphabets | ا, ب, پ, ت, ٹ, ث, ج, چ, ح, خ, د, ڈ, ذ, ر, ڑ, ز, ژ, س, ش, ص, ض, ط, ظ, ع, غ, ف, ق, ک, گ, ل, م, ن, ں, و, ہ, ء, ی, ے | A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z |
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