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Punjabi Shahmukhi | Romani | |
---|---|---|
Family | Indo-European, Indo-Aryan | Indo-European, Indo-Aryan |
Speakers | Approximately 130 million (includes speakers of both Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi scripts) | Approximately 3.5 million |
Features | Written in a modified Perso-Arabic script; primarily used by Punjabi speakers in Pakistan and some parts of India. Unlike Gurmukhi, Shahmukhi is written from right to left. | Rich oral tradition, significant dialectal variation, retains features of Old Indo-Aryan languages with influences from European languages |
Countries | Pakistan (primary script for Punjabi), India (minority use), and Punjabi-speaking diaspora communities | Spoken by Romani communities across Europe, Turkey, and diaspora communities worldwide |
Writing System | Shahmukhi script (Perso-Arabic script with additional characters) | Latin script (commonly), also Cyrillic in some regions |
Tonal | Yes, tonal distinctions are important for meaning | No |
Grammatical Cases | No, relies on word order and postpositions | Yes, typically nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative; varies by dialect |
Derived From | Perso-Arabic script, adapted for Punjabi phonology | Early Central Indo-Aryan languages |
Loanwords | From Arabic, Persian, and English | From Greek, Slavic languages, Romanian, German, and other regional languages |
Dialects | Includes Majhi, Doabi, Malwai, Pothohari, and others. Standard Shahmukhi is based on the Majhi dialect spoken around Lahore. | Includes Vlax Romani, Balkan Romani, Carpathian Romani, and others, with significant variation in vocabulary and grammar |
Alphabets | ا, ب, پ, ت, ٹ, ث, ج, چ, ح, خ, د, ڈ, ذ, ر, ڑ, ز, ژ, س, ش, ص, ض, ط, ظ, ع, غ, ف, ق, ک, گ, ل, م, ن, ں, و, ہ, ء, ی, ے | A, B, C, Č, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, Š, T, U, V, Z, Ž |
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