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| Madurese | Dzongkha | |
|---|---|---|
| Family | Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian | Sino-Tibetan |
| Speakers | Approximately 13.5 million | Approximately 640,000 |
| Features | A language with distinct phonetic features, such as a reduced vowel inventory and a preference for glottal stops; it exhibits a high degree of mutual unintelligibility with Javanese despite geographic proximity. | The national language of Bhutan, used in official communication and education |
| Countries | Indonesia (primarily on Madura Island and in parts of East Java, including Surabaya and surrounding areas) | Bhutan |
| Writing System | Latin script (modern use), previously Javanese and Pegon scripts (Arabic-derived script) | Tibetan script |
| Tonal | No | Yes |
| Grammatical Cases | No, uses prepositions and affixes to mark relationships | Yes, uses a system of nominative-accusative and ergative markers |
| Derived From | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian | Classical Tibetan, shares many linguistic features with other Tibetan dialects |
| Loanwords | From Javanese, Sanskrit, Arabic, and Dutch | From Sanskrit, Tibetan, and English |
| Dialects | Includes Bangkalan, Sumenep, and Pamekasan dialects, with significant lexical and phonological differences | Includes Western Dzongkha, Eastern Dzongkha, Southern Dzongkha, and Central Dzongkha |
| Alphabets | A, B, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y, Z | ཀ, ཁ, ག, ང, ཅ, ཆ, ཇ, ཉ, ཏ, ཐ, ད, ན, པ, ཕ, བ, མ, ཙ, ཚ, ཛ, ཝ, ཞ, ཟ, འ, ཡ, ར, ལ, ཤ, ས, ཧ, ཨ |
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